Jonathan Cheek | Wellesley College (2024)

Technical Report, Wellesley College Department of Psychology (5th ed.), 2023

Identity orientations refer to the relative importance or subjective value that individuals place... more Identity orientations refer to the relative importance or subjective value that individuals place on various identity attributes or characteristics when constructing their self-definitions (Cheek, 1989). The development of the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire began with items that were judged to represent the domains of personal and social identity (Cheek & Briggs, 1981, 1982). Further psychometric analyses indicated that certain items originally scored on the social identity scale (e.g., "Being a part of
the many generations of my family") were tending to cluster on a third factor representing communal or collective identity. Therefore, the Social Identity Orientation scale was revised to more explicitly focus on William James’ (1890) conceptualization of the social self, and a new third scale for Collective Identity Orientation was developed (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985) and then expanded (Cheek, Tropp, Chen, & Underwood, 1994). Neither the social nor collective scales focus on intimate relationships with close friends or romantic partners, so a fourth scale for Relational Identity Orientation (“Being a good friend to those I really care about”) was added to the AIQ-IV (Cheek, Smith, & Tropp, 2002). The name Social Identity scale was changed to the Public Identity Orientation Scale by Cheek and Cheek (2018). That completed development of the AIQ-IV containing Personal, Relational, Public(Social), and Collective Identity Orientation Scales.

PsycEXTRA Dataset, Jan 28, 2006

A series of research studies conducted at Stanford University in the 1970s laid the foundation fo... more A series of research studies conducted at Stanford University in the 1970s laid the foundation for contemporary approaches to the psychology of shyness. The view of shyness that emerged was very negative, characterizing it as a personal problem that could be considered a social disease (e.g., Zimbardo, 1977). Other psychologists, however, objected that this view was too one-sided. The most radical alternative has been proposed recently by Avila (2002 book The Gift of Shyness) with a new, entirely positive definition of shyness which assumes that shy people are gifted with seven desirable personal attributes: sensitivity, loyalty, being a good listener, self-reflection, modesty, mysteriousness, and gentleness. Since Avila did not present any new research data to support his new definition of shyness, we conducted an initial empirical examination of his theoretical formulation by administering a survey to 213 college women which included the seven gifts of shyness, seven corresponding problems of shyness that had been identified in previous research, and the Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale. Compared to those who were not shy, shy participants rated themselves significantly higher on two of the seven gifts (modesty and mysteriousness), the same on three, and significantly lower on two. For the problems of shyness, the shy participants rated themselves significantly higher on all seven items. These results provide little support for Avila’s specific theory of the gift of shyness, but the findings for the positive attributes of modesty and mysteriousness suggest that future research might be able to develop a more balanced picture of shyness as a personality characteristic.
Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Palm Springs, CA. January 2006

We review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that ... more We review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that individuals place on various identity attributes when constructing their self-definitions. We first provide a brief history of the development of our measure of identity orientations – the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) – after which we present our tetrapartite model of the self that distinguishes among individual, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. We then review previous research on how the four identity orientations uniquely influence cognition, emotion, and behavior, and close by highlighting what we see as interesting and important directions for future research. Identity is the construct that defines who or what a person is, and people's views of their identity can encompass any combination of expressions of individual uniqueness, personal relationships, labels that refer to social roles, and group memberships (e.g., Gordon, 1968). In the present paper, we review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that individuals place on various identity attributes when constructing their self-definitions (Cheek, 1989). We begin by providing a brief history of the development of our measure of identity orientations – the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) – after which we present our tetrapartite model of the self that distinguishes among individual, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. After outlining the theoretical justification for the adoption of the tetrapartite model, we review previous research on how the four identity orientations uniquely influence cognition, emotion, and behavior. Finally, we highlight what we see as important directions for future research.

""The publication of the RIC scale (Kashima & Hardie, 2000) and the book Individual Self, Relatio... more ""The publication of the RIC scale (Kashima & Hardie, 2000) and the book Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self (Sedikides & Brewer, 2001) focused self-concept research by many social and cultural psychologists on these three self-representations. In RIC models independent self-construal is equated with the individual or personal self and interdependent self-construal is represented by both the personal bonds of attachment in the relational self and the ingroup versus out-group social identities in the collective self. What appears to be missing in these 21st century RIC models is William James’ (1890) social self that had been centrally represented in social psychological theory and research from 1975-1995 through topics such as public self-consciousness, self-monitoring, self-presentation, and impression management (e.g., Baumeister, 1986; Schlenker, 1985). Therefore we conducted principal component and correlational analyses of 25 identity orientation items (N = 225) which yielded three distinct dimensions of relational, social, and collective aspects of interdependent self, indicating that all three are necessary to adequately describe interdependent aspects of the self. We conclude that researchers should shift attention from the tripartite RIC model to a tetrapartite model of self-concept that includes these three interdependent selves in addition to the individual self.""

The present scale development results indicate initial success in constructing a reliable new sel... more The present scale development results indicate initial success in constructing a reliable new self-report measure of adaptive overt narcissism that is distinct from measures of covert and maladaptive overt narcissism. The Adaptive Overt Narcissism Scale (AONS) also is substantially more correlated with self-esteem than existing subscales of the NPI that have been used to assess moderately “healthy” or adaptive narcissism.

The purpose of the present research was to improve the reliability and item content of the recent... more The purpose of the present research was to improve the reliability and item content of the recently popular Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS; Hendin & Cheek, 1997) by expanding it into a more complete measure of maladaptive covert narcissism. In an Amazon Mechanical Turk survey of 420 adults, the 23-item expanded version of the Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS) had an alpha reliability of .89 compared to .75 for the original HSNS. Overall, the present results indicate that the new scale represents a significant improvement in the assessment of maladaptive covert narcissism.

Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

Identity orientations refer to the relative importance of various identity attributes in the cons... more Identity orientations refer to the relative importance of various identity attributes in the construction of self-definitions. For Cheek and Briggs (1982), social identity orientation referred to the importance of James’ (1890) social me: one's popularity or social reputation deriving from interpersonal relationships. Abrams (1988), however, criticized their social identity scale for failing to capture European social identity theory’s emphasis on sociological aspects of self-definition (for example, cultural or ethnic group membership; Tajfel, 1981). To avoid confusion between these Jamesian and European meanings of social identity, some psychologists have argued that the term collective identity should be used to capture the parts of self-definition encompassed by social identity theory (e.g., Ashmore, Deaux, & McLaughlin-Volpe, 2004; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Cheek, 1989). We report a factor analysis yielding distinct social and collective identity orientation scales (N = 511), ethnic group differences for collective but not social identity orientation (N = 441), and differential correlations with relevant self-concept measures that support maintaining two separate scales. Moreover, relational self-concept is clearly distinguishable from both social and collective identity orientations, indicating the need to measure all three of them as distinct aspects of interdependent self-construal in future research.

This document contains the two papers referenced below:Grimes, J.O., Cheek, J.M., & Norem, J.K.... more This document contains the two papers referenced below:

Grimes, J.O., Cheek, J.M., & Norem, J.K. (2011, January). Four meanings of introversion: Social, thinking, anxious, and inhibited* introversion. Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX.
[*Note: After the 2011 paper, we renamed the Inhibited factor as Restrained Introversion, with reference to the work of J.P. Guilford.]

Cheek, J.M., Brown, C.A., & Grimes, J.O. (2014, Sept.). Personality Scales for Four Domains of Introversion: Social, Thinking, Anxious, and Restrained Introversion. Preliminary Research Manual (2nd ed)., Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley MA. 02481-8203 with addendum -- Cheek, J.M., Brown, C.A., & Grimes, J.O. (2020, Sept.). STAR Scales Update -- Revised Restrained Introversion Scale. Unpublished, Wellesley College Psychology Department
jcheek@wellesley.edu with

.

The Zuckerman Parker Handbook of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics for Primary Care (3rd ed., pp. 352-354)., 2010

Describes the developmental psychology of shyness for readers who are doctors, nurses, parents, ... more Describes the developmental psychology of shyness for readers who are doctors, nurses, parents, and teachers. Includes key clinical questions and advice for helping shy children. Updated from the 1994 1st edition and 2004 2nd edition.

Personality and Mental Health, 2009

The aim of the study was to assess the reliability and the validity of the Italian translation of... more The aim of the study was to assess the reliability and the validity of the Italian translation of the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS) in a sample of consecutively admitted psychiatric outpatients (N = 366) and in an independent sample of non-clinical volunteers (N = 385). In both samples, data from the HSNS had adequate internal consistency, considering its limited length. Consistent with our hypothesis, a two-factor structure explained the HSNS item intercorrelations. Among clinical participants, the HSNS and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) showed radically different patterns of correlations with the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) Personality Disorder diagnoses. In both samples, the HSNS and the NPI showed distinct and theoretically consistent correlations with temperament and character dimensions. As a whole, these findings seem to support the reliability and the validity of the HSNS as a measure of hypersensitive narcissism. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Encyclopedia of Human Relationships (vol. 3, pp. 1489-1492)., 2009

Describes the three-component model of shyness as a personality trait and its implications for re... more Describes the three-component model of shyness as a personality trait and its implications for relationships and interpersonal styles. Love-shyness, the internet, and cultural differences in shyness are discussed. Cheek, J.M., & Tyson, K.E. (2009). Shyness. In H.T. Reis & S.K. Sprecher (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Human Relationships (vol. 3, pp. 1489-1492). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (vol. 2, pp. 874-875), 2007

Describes shyness as a situational self-conscious emotion and as a personality trait influencing ... more Describes shyness as a situational self-conscious emotion and as a personality trait influencing individual differences in social behavior.

Journal of Personality Assessment, 2005

Although the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS; Cheek, 1983) is widely used, its psychom... more Although the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS; Cheek, 1983) is widely used, its psychometric properties largely are unknown. In this investigation, we examined the normative data, factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent/discriminant validity of the RCBS using a sample of 261 university students. Results provided strong support for the stability of normative data over time, reliability of the measure, and its predicted associations with contemporary measures of shyness, social anxiety, and related constructs. Although support was obtained for a unifactorial conceptualization of shyness, an exploratory factor analysis revealed an alternative 3-factor solution that was supportive of a previously proposed meta-analytic model of shyness (Jones, Briggs, & Smith, 1986) and was consistent with other prominent shyness theories (Buss, 1980; Pilkonis, 1977a, 1977b; Zimbardo, 1977). This factor model was replicable on a holdout sample, and there were some data to support the discriminant validity of factors.

Encyclopedia of Human Development, 2006

Overview of the developmental psychology of shyness.

Personality: Contemporary theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 122-155), 2005

Updated revision of the authors' personality development chapter originally published in the 1991... more Updated revision of the authors' personality development chapter originally published in the 1991 1st edition and revised for the 2nd 1999 edition. The 3rd edition is still in print through Cengage Learning. Abstract: The psychology of personality development addresses a basic yet complex question: How did you become the person you are today? This is no idle philosophical musing. Views of personality development have a profound impact on choosing how to raise children, how schools are run, and how government and social policy decisions are made. They also shape the approach therapists use when trying to help a person change and grow. In this chapter we examine the major theoretical approaches to personality development and link them to contemporary research topics. Topics include: overview of major theories; Freud and the psychoanalytic tradition; attachment research—a neoanalytic perspective; behaviorism and social learning theory; Rogers and Humanistic psychology; the biosocial and sociocultural tradition; and toward a transactional theory of personality development. (PsycINFO Database Record for 2nd ed.). Waters, P.L., & Cheek, J.M. (2005). Personality development. In V.J. Derlega, B.A. Winstead, & W.H. Jones (Eds.), Personality: Contemporary theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 122-155). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Social Behavior and Personality, 2003

A sample of 102 college women completed a set of imagination and personality measures and reporte... more A sample of 102 college women completed a set of imagination and personality measures and reported whether they had ever had imaginary companions during childhood. Participants who reported imaginary companions scored higher than did those who did not on measures of imagination including imagery use, hostile daydreams, and vivid night dreams, and on personality scales including dependent interpersonal styles and internal-state awareness. Participant groups did not differ significantly on shyness, other interpersonal styles, or measures of self-concept. Comparison of these results with research on children and adolescents with imaginary companions suggests a coherent developmental pattern in social orientation characterized by sensitivity and accommodation to others' needs.

Psychology (vol. 5, Social Psychology), 2002

An overview of personality dynamics and development.

Encyclopedia of Psychology (vol. 7), 2000

Discusses shyness as the most often used term to label feelings of anxiety and inhibition in soci... more Discusses shyness as the most often used term to label feelings of anxiety and inhibition in social situations.

Varieties of shyness in adolescence and adulthood., 1999

In this chapter the authors review research and theory on shyness with a focus on the varieties o... more In this chapter the authors review research and theory on shyness with a focus on the varieties of shyness that are experienced during adolescence and adulthood. After considering the distinction between early- and later-developing shyness, the authors describe the 3-component model of adult shyness. Then the authors introduce a new approach to withdrawn and dependent subtypes of shyness. Finally, the authors conclude with some implications of their approach for future directions in theory, research, and treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record).

Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed), 1999

Proposes that a scientific understanding of the self—identity, self-esteem, and self-regulation— ... more Proposes that a scientific understanding of the self—identity, self-esteem, and self-regulation— is not only possible but is in fact fundamental to the science of personality. The authors present a short history of the self as a central construct in personality theory, noting the recent renewed interest in the role of the self in general theories of the person. They address questions regarding the nature and structure of the self, how and where it is realized in the brain, what its adaptive functions are, returning to W. James's initial set of issues as when he first formulated a naturalist perspective on self and consciousness.

Technical Report, Wellesley College Department of Psychology (5th ed.), 2023

Identity orientations refer to the relative importance or subjective value that individuals place... more Identity orientations refer to the relative importance or subjective value that individuals place on various identity attributes or characteristics when constructing their self-definitions (Cheek, 1989). The development of the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire began with items that were judged to represent the domains of personal and social identity (Cheek & Briggs, 1981, 1982). Further psychometric analyses indicated that certain items originally scored on the social identity scale (e.g., "Being a part of
the many generations of my family") were tending to cluster on a third factor representing communal or collective identity. Therefore, the Social Identity Orientation scale was revised to more explicitly focus on William James’ (1890) conceptualization of the social self, and a new third scale for Collective Identity Orientation was developed (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985) and then expanded (Cheek, Tropp, Chen, & Underwood, 1994). Neither the social nor collective scales focus on intimate relationships with close friends or romantic partners, so a fourth scale for Relational Identity Orientation (“Being a good friend to those I really care about”) was added to the AIQ-IV (Cheek, Smith, & Tropp, 2002). The name Social Identity scale was changed to the Public Identity Orientation Scale by Cheek and Cheek (2018). That completed development of the AIQ-IV containing Personal, Relational, Public(Social), and Collective Identity Orientation Scales.

PsycEXTRA Dataset, Jan 28, 2006

A series of research studies conducted at Stanford University in the 1970s laid the foundation fo... more A series of research studies conducted at Stanford University in the 1970s laid the foundation for contemporary approaches to the psychology of shyness. The view of shyness that emerged was very negative, characterizing it as a personal problem that could be considered a social disease (e.g., Zimbardo, 1977). Other psychologists, however, objected that this view was too one-sided. The most radical alternative has been proposed recently by Avila (2002 book The Gift of Shyness) with a new, entirely positive definition of shyness which assumes that shy people are gifted with seven desirable personal attributes: sensitivity, loyalty, being a good listener, self-reflection, modesty, mysteriousness, and gentleness. Since Avila did not present any new research data to support his new definition of shyness, we conducted an initial empirical examination of his theoretical formulation by administering a survey to 213 college women which included the seven gifts of shyness, seven corresponding problems of shyness that had been identified in previous research, and the Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale. Compared to those who were not shy, shy participants rated themselves significantly higher on two of the seven gifts (modesty and mysteriousness), the same on three, and significantly lower on two. For the problems of shyness, the shy participants rated themselves significantly higher on all seven items. These results provide little support for Avila’s specific theory of the gift of shyness, but the findings for the positive attributes of modesty and mysteriousness suggest that future research might be able to develop a more balanced picture of shyness as a personality characteristic.
Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Palm Springs, CA. January 2006

We review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that ... more We review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that individuals place on various identity attributes when constructing their self-definitions. We first provide a brief history of the development of our measure of identity orientations – the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) – after which we present our tetrapartite model of the self that distinguishes among individual, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. We then review previous research on how the four identity orientations uniquely influence cognition, emotion, and behavior, and close by highlighting what we see as interesting and important directions for future research. Identity is the construct that defines who or what a person is, and people's views of their identity can encompass any combination of expressions of individual uniqueness, personal relationships, labels that refer to social roles, and group memberships (e.g., Gordon, 1968). In the present paper, we review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that individuals place on various identity attributes when constructing their self-definitions (Cheek, 1989). We begin by providing a brief history of the development of our measure of identity orientations – the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) – after which we present our tetrapartite model of the self that distinguishes among individual, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. After outlining the theoretical justification for the adoption of the tetrapartite model, we review previous research on how the four identity orientations uniquely influence cognition, emotion, and behavior. Finally, we highlight what we see as important directions for future research.

""The publication of the RIC scale (Kashima & Hardie, 2000) and the book Individual Self, Relatio... more ""The publication of the RIC scale (Kashima & Hardie, 2000) and the book Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self (Sedikides & Brewer, 2001) focused self-concept research by many social and cultural psychologists on these three self-representations. In RIC models independent self-construal is equated with the individual or personal self and interdependent self-construal is represented by both the personal bonds of attachment in the relational self and the ingroup versus out-group social identities in the collective self. What appears to be missing in these 21st century RIC models is William James’ (1890) social self that had been centrally represented in social psychological theory and research from 1975-1995 through topics such as public self-consciousness, self-monitoring, self-presentation, and impression management (e.g., Baumeister, 1986; Schlenker, 1985). Therefore we conducted principal component and correlational analyses of 25 identity orientation items (N = 225) which yielded three distinct dimensions of relational, social, and collective aspects of interdependent self, indicating that all three are necessary to adequately describe interdependent aspects of the self. We conclude that researchers should shift attention from the tripartite RIC model to a tetrapartite model of self-concept that includes these three interdependent selves in addition to the individual self.""

The present scale development results indicate initial success in constructing a reliable new sel... more The present scale development results indicate initial success in constructing a reliable new self-report measure of adaptive overt narcissism that is distinct from measures of covert and maladaptive overt narcissism. The Adaptive Overt Narcissism Scale (AONS) also is substantially more correlated with self-esteem than existing subscales of the NPI that have been used to assess moderately “healthy” or adaptive narcissism.

The purpose of the present research was to improve the reliability and item content of the recent... more The purpose of the present research was to improve the reliability and item content of the recently popular Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS; Hendin & Cheek, 1997) by expanding it into a more complete measure of maladaptive covert narcissism. In an Amazon Mechanical Turk survey of 420 adults, the 23-item expanded version of the Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS) had an alpha reliability of .89 compared to .75 for the original HSNS. Overall, the present results indicate that the new scale represents a significant improvement in the assessment of maladaptive covert narcissism.

Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

Identity orientations refer to the relative importance of various identity attributes in the cons... more Identity orientations refer to the relative importance of various identity attributes in the construction of self-definitions. For Cheek and Briggs (1982), social identity orientation referred to the importance of James’ (1890) social me: one's popularity or social reputation deriving from interpersonal relationships. Abrams (1988), however, criticized their social identity scale for failing to capture European social identity theory’s emphasis on sociological aspects of self-definition (for example, cultural or ethnic group membership; Tajfel, 1981). To avoid confusion between these Jamesian and European meanings of social identity, some psychologists have argued that the term collective identity should be used to capture the parts of self-definition encompassed by social identity theory (e.g., Ashmore, Deaux, & McLaughlin-Volpe, 2004; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Cheek, 1989). We report a factor analysis yielding distinct social and collective identity orientation scales (N = 511), ethnic group differences for collective but not social identity orientation (N = 441), and differential correlations with relevant self-concept measures that support maintaining two separate scales. Moreover, relational self-concept is clearly distinguishable from both social and collective identity orientations, indicating the need to measure all three of them as distinct aspects of interdependent self-construal in future research.

This document contains the two papers referenced below:Grimes, J.O., Cheek, J.M., & Norem, J.K.... more This document contains the two papers referenced below:

Grimes, J.O., Cheek, J.M., & Norem, J.K. (2011, January). Four meanings of introversion: Social, thinking, anxious, and inhibited* introversion. Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX.
[*Note: After the 2011 paper, we renamed the Inhibited factor as Restrained Introversion, with reference to the work of J.P. Guilford.]

Cheek, J.M., Brown, C.A., & Grimes, J.O. (2014, Sept.). Personality Scales for Four Domains of Introversion: Social, Thinking, Anxious, and Restrained Introversion. Preliminary Research Manual (2nd ed)., Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley MA. 02481-8203 with addendum -- Cheek, J.M., Brown, C.A., & Grimes, J.O. (2020, Sept.). STAR Scales Update -- Revised Restrained Introversion Scale. Unpublished, Wellesley College Psychology Department
jcheek@wellesley.edu with

.

The Zuckerman Parker Handbook of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics for Primary Care (3rd ed., pp. 352-354)., 2010

Describes the developmental psychology of shyness for readers who are doctors, nurses, parents, ... more Describes the developmental psychology of shyness for readers who are doctors, nurses, parents, and teachers. Includes key clinical questions and advice for helping shy children. Updated from the 1994 1st edition and 2004 2nd edition.

Personality and Mental Health, 2009

The aim of the study was to assess the reliability and the validity of the Italian translation of... more The aim of the study was to assess the reliability and the validity of the Italian translation of the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS) in a sample of consecutively admitted psychiatric outpatients (N = 366) and in an independent sample of non-clinical volunteers (N = 385). In both samples, data from the HSNS had adequate internal consistency, considering its limited length. Consistent with our hypothesis, a two-factor structure explained the HSNS item intercorrelations. Among clinical participants, the HSNS and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) showed radically different patterns of correlations with the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) Personality Disorder diagnoses. In both samples, the HSNS and the NPI showed distinct and theoretically consistent correlations with temperament and character dimensions. As a whole, these findings seem to support the reliability and the validity of the HSNS as a measure of hypersensitive narcissism. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Encyclopedia of Human Relationships (vol. 3, pp. 1489-1492)., 2009

Describes the three-component model of shyness as a personality trait and its implications for re... more Describes the three-component model of shyness as a personality trait and its implications for relationships and interpersonal styles. Love-shyness, the internet, and cultural differences in shyness are discussed. Cheek, J.M., & Tyson, K.E. (2009). Shyness. In H.T. Reis & S.K. Sprecher (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Human Relationships (vol. 3, pp. 1489-1492). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (vol. 2, pp. 874-875), 2007

Describes shyness as a situational self-conscious emotion and as a personality trait influencing ... more Describes shyness as a situational self-conscious emotion and as a personality trait influencing individual differences in social behavior.

Journal of Personality Assessment, 2005

Although the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS; Cheek, 1983) is widely used, its psychom... more Although the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS; Cheek, 1983) is widely used, its psychometric properties largely are unknown. In this investigation, we examined the normative data, factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent/discriminant validity of the RCBS using a sample of 261 university students. Results provided strong support for the stability of normative data over time, reliability of the measure, and its predicted associations with contemporary measures of shyness, social anxiety, and related constructs. Although support was obtained for a unifactorial conceptualization of shyness, an exploratory factor analysis revealed an alternative 3-factor solution that was supportive of a previously proposed meta-analytic model of shyness (Jones, Briggs, & Smith, 1986) and was consistent with other prominent shyness theories (Buss, 1980; Pilkonis, 1977a, 1977b; Zimbardo, 1977). This factor model was replicable on a holdout sample, and there were some data to support the discriminant validity of factors.

Encyclopedia of Human Development, 2006

Overview of the developmental psychology of shyness.

Personality: Contemporary theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 122-155), 2005

Updated revision of the authors' personality development chapter originally published in the 1991... more Updated revision of the authors' personality development chapter originally published in the 1991 1st edition and revised for the 2nd 1999 edition. The 3rd edition is still in print through Cengage Learning. Abstract: The psychology of personality development addresses a basic yet complex question: How did you become the person you are today? This is no idle philosophical musing. Views of personality development have a profound impact on choosing how to raise children, how schools are run, and how government and social policy decisions are made. They also shape the approach therapists use when trying to help a person change and grow. In this chapter we examine the major theoretical approaches to personality development and link them to contemporary research topics. Topics include: overview of major theories; Freud and the psychoanalytic tradition; attachment research—a neoanalytic perspective; behaviorism and social learning theory; Rogers and Humanistic psychology; the biosocial and sociocultural tradition; and toward a transactional theory of personality development. (PsycINFO Database Record for 2nd ed.). Waters, P.L., & Cheek, J.M. (2005). Personality development. In V.J. Derlega, B.A. Winstead, & W.H. Jones (Eds.), Personality: Contemporary theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 122-155). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Social Behavior and Personality, 2003

A sample of 102 college women completed a set of imagination and personality measures and reporte... more A sample of 102 college women completed a set of imagination and personality measures and reported whether they had ever had imaginary companions during childhood. Participants who reported imaginary companions scored higher than did those who did not on measures of imagination including imagery use, hostile daydreams, and vivid night dreams, and on personality scales including dependent interpersonal styles and internal-state awareness. Participant groups did not differ significantly on shyness, other interpersonal styles, or measures of self-concept. Comparison of these results with research on children and adolescents with imaginary companions suggests a coherent developmental pattern in social orientation characterized by sensitivity and accommodation to others' needs.

Psychology (vol. 5, Social Psychology), 2002

An overview of personality dynamics and development.

Encyclopedia of Psychology (vol. 7), 2000

Discusses shyness as the most often used term to label feelings of anxiety and inhibition in soci... more Discusses shyness as the most often used term to label feelings of anxiety and inhibition in social situations.

Varieties of shyness in adolescence and adulthood., 1999

In this chapter the authors review research and theory on shyness with a focus on the varieties o... more In this chapter the authors review research and theory on shyness with a focus on the varieties of shyness that are experienced during adolescence and adulthood. After considering the distinction between early- and later-developing shyness, the authors describe the 3-component model of adult shyness. Then the authors introduce a new approach to withdrawn and dependent subtypes of shyness. Finally, the authors conclude with some implications of their approach for future directions in theory, research, and treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record).

Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed), 1999

Proposes that a scientific understanding of the self—identity, self-esteem, and self-regulation— ... more Proposes that a scientific understanding of the self—identity, self-esteem, and self-regulation— is not only possible but is in fact fundamental to the science of personality. The authors present a short history of the self as a central construct in personality theory, noting the recent renewed interest in the role of the self in general theories of the person. They address questions regarding the nature and structure of the self, how and where it is realized in the brain, what its adaptive functions are, returning to W. James's initial set of issues as when he first formulated a naturalist perspective on self and consciousness.

From Publishers Weekly via http://www.amazon.com/Conquering-Shyness-Jonathan-Cheek/dp/0440503191 ... more From Publishers Weekly via http://www.amazon.com/Conquering-Shyness-Jonathan-Cheek/dp/0440503191
"Shyness is a syndrome, argues Wellesley psychology professor Cheek, an interaction of feelings, thoughts and active behavior. And shyness is customarily manifested in one of three ways: physical distress (blushing, or pounding heartbeat); worries (e.g., feelings of inadequacy); and a lack of social skills. The problem may develop in the very young child--in which case symptoms are largely physical--or during adolescence, when the sufferer is prone to anxiety. Cheek and his coauthors, both freelance writers, divide this enormously helpful book into two parts, the first devoted to overcoming shyness by a variety of techniques, and the second to applying new-found confidence to social life, such as making friends and approaching the opposite sex. Included also are valuable diagnostic tests and suggestions for keeping progress records.""

Twenty-seven chapters on all aspects of the psychology of shyness. (see Table of Contents, below ... more Twenty-seven chapters on all aspects of the psychology of shyness. (see Table of Contents, below links)

February 1986 Plenum hardcover, second hardcover printing August 1987, was published in paperback 12-1-2013 by Springer which acquired Plenum in the 1990s. Also available as an eBook from Springer.

Paperback: http://www.amazon.com/Shyness-Perspectives-Treatment-Personality-Psychotherapy/dp/1489905278

Hardcover: http://www.amazon.com/Shyness-Perspectives-Treatment-Personality-Psychotherapy/dp/0306420333

eBook: http://www.springer.com/psychology/book/978-0-306-42033-7

Info: http://books.google.com/books/about/Shyness_Perspectives_on_Research_and_Tre.html?id=j-GfM5C5vBMC

Contents: 1. Introduction.- I. Issues in the Study of Shyness.- 2. The Stanford Shyness Project.- 3. Affective and Behavioral Components of Shyness: Implications for Theory, Measurement, and Research.- 4. A Theory of Shyness.- 5. The Measurement of Shyness.- II. Development of Shyness.- 6. Genetics and Shyness.- 7. Shyness and Temperament.- 8. Shyness in Middle and Late Childhood.- 9. Adolescent Shyness.- 10. Shyness and the Elderly.- III. The Experience of Shyness: Personal Aspects.- 11. Individual Differences in Shyness.- 12. Shyness as a Discrete Emotion.- 13. On Being “Shy like a Fox”: A Self-Handicapping Analysis.- 14. Analyzing Shyness: A Specific Application of Broader Self-Regulatory Principles.- IV. The Experience of Shyness: Social Aspects.- 15. Shyness and Self-Presentation.- 16. Positive, Negative, and Balanced Shyness: Self-Definitions and the Reactions of Others.- 17. Shyness, Social Behavior, and Relationships.- 18. A Trait-Situational Analysis of Shyness.- V. Related Constructs.- 19. Anxiety and Interfering Thoughts: Their Effect on Social Interaction.- 20. Physiological, Affective, and Behavioral Implications of Extraversion-Introversion.- 21. Oral Communication Apprehension.- 22. Embarrassment: Causes and Consequences.- VI. Therapeutic Interventions.- 23. Cognitive Therapy for Shyness and Social Anxiety.- 24. Self-Perception Theory and the Treatment of Shyness.- 25. Interpersonal Process Training for Shy Clients.- 26. Rhetoritherapy: The Principles of Rhetoric in Training Shy People in Speech Effectiveness.- 27. Short-Term Group Psychotherapy for Shyness.- Author Index.

Description of edited volume: This volume is about shyness: its definitions and conceptualization as a psychological construct, research on its causes and consequences, methods for measuring shyness, strategies for alleviating the unpleasant experiences associated with shyness, and its connection to other forms of social anxiety and inhibition. The principal goal in putting psychologists from several sub-disciplines, most notably social, personality, clinical, and developmental psychology, in addition to social scientists from other disciplines. We do not assume that these chapters, considered collectively or individually, provide answers to every conceivable issue with respect to shyness. Rather, we hope that the book will serve to integrate what is known about shyness on the basis of current research and theorizing and to provide both directions and impetus for continued research, theoretical evolution, and improved techniques of assessment and intervention.

The meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles., 1994

Identity orientations refer to the relative importance that individuals place on various identity... more Identity orientations refer to the relative importance that individuals place on various identity attributes or characteristics when constructing their self-definitions. A factor analysis of questionnaire items indicated that personal, social, and collective aspects of identity constitute three relatively distinct categories of identity attributes. A revised version of the new collective identity orientation scale possessed adequate psychometric characteristics and showed the expected group difference of Asian American students scoring significantly higher than European American students. Theoretical implications and research applications of the identity orientation scales are discussed. (Two additional, subsequent samples N = 205 presented in supplemental Table 2b for the final version of the Collective Identity Orientation Scale and Supplemental Table 3b N = 385 for group differences on the AIQ-IIIx.) by Jonathan M. Cheek, Linda R. Tropp, Lisa C. Chen, and Marion K. Underwood. For updates on the expanded AIQ-IV, see https://www.academia.edu/36661446/Aspects_of_identity_From_the_inner_outer_metaphor_to_a_tetrapartite_model_of_the_self
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The Biennial Conference of the Association for Research in Personality, 2015

The Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS; Hendin & Cheek, 1997) has become widely used as a meas... more The Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS; Hendin & Cheek, 1997) has become widely used as a measure of covert, vulnerable narcissism. In the original scale construction article, the 10 items were interpreted as forming a single factor based on loadings on the first unrotated factor. More recently, however, researchers studying an Italian translation of the HSNS interpreted a two-factor structure for the 10-item scale (Fossati et al., 2009). The purpose of the present research was to explore the factor structure of the HSNS in two large English language samples (total N = 28,791). Statistical tests for the number of factors to rotate indicated two factors for both of these samples. The two subscales of the HSNS identified in the present research, Self-Absorption and Hypersensitivity, are conceptually similar to the two Italian components obtained in two samples by Fossati et al. (2009; Egocentrism and Oversensitivity to Judgement). We conclude that these two components should be explored further in ongoing work on revising and expanding the original 10-item HSNS.

Annual Convention of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Long Beach, CA, 2015

The idea that the self-overvaluation characteristic of narcissism can be directed either overtly ... more The idea that the self-overvaluation characteristic of narcissism can be directed either overtly toward the public self (ego) or covertly toward the privately idealized self-image (ego ideal) was first discussed in the 1920s (e.g., Ellis, 1927). The more recent designation of these two faces of narcissism as Grandiosity-Exhibitionism (overt) and Vulnerability-Sensitivity (covert) by Wink (1991) finally has become accepted in contemporary personality and social psychological research (e.g., Miller et al., 2011). Researchers have tended to focus on what divides or distinguishes these two faces of narcissism (e.g., Krizan & Johar, 2012), and the extent of such distinctions now raises questions about what connects overt and covert narcissism as aspects of the same psychological construct and is covert “really” a form of narcissism? In two studies (total N = 595) we found answers in strong positive correlations between both overt and covert narcissism and measures of entitlement rage and grandiose fantasies.

Annual Convention of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Savannah, GA , 2002

Identity orientations refer to the relative importance that individuals place on various identity... more Identity orientations refer to the relative importance that individuals place on various identity attributes or characteristics when constructing their self-definitions (Cheek, 1989). The purpose of the present research was to develop a new relational identity orientation scale for the AIQ. As may be seen in Table 2, psychometric analyses in a sample of 199 college women yielded 10 items for the new relational scale (alpha= .92; M = 40.7). Convergent validity was supported by large positive correlations with other measures of relational self-concept (see Table 4); discriminant validity for the relational scale was supported by only weak to moderate positive correlations with the AIQ-III and other measures of personal, social, and collective self-concept orientations (Cross, Bacon, & Morris, 2000; Kashima & Hardie, 2000; Singelis, 1994; see Tables 3 and 4). These initial findings support the utility of our new 4-factor model: personal, relational, social (public), and collective identity orientations.

Cheek, J.M., Smith, S.M., & Tropp, L.R. (2002, February). Relational identity orientation: A fourth scale for the AIQ. Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Savannah, GA.